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ORIENTAL NUMISMATIC SOCIETY INFORMATION SHEET” No.4, Sept 54

INDIA SILVER PUNCHMARKED AND ASSOCIATED COINAGES

TERRY R. HARDAKER

The silver coinages of India, from their origin to the termination of the issue of punchmarked silver, are the subject of this monograph. As the coins bear no recognisable inscriptions or dates, assignment to particular areas or periods can only be made by a correlation of the literary and archaeological records, together with a careful study of the coins themselves. Modern research has established a chronological framework but a detailed chronology is not yet available. The general abundance of punchmarked coins, or “Karshapanas”, widens their appeal to students and collectors alike. Historical Summary

Early Sanskrit and Buddhist texts tell of the existence of sixteen Janapadas, or political units, in Northern India during the 7th century B.C. They were populated by people of long-standing occupation together with invaders (“Aryans”) who had

infiltrated from outside India during the previous thousand years.

Some of these Janapadas may have been responsible for local short-lived issues of

silver with a single large bold mark (coin no. 1) which are known, in different forms, from areas as widely separated as Kabul, Sultanpur near Poona, Bombay and Lucknow.

The Janapadas in the more recently-invaded Gangetic plains - notably Kosala and Magadha (see map) - developed radical monarchic systems of government requiring the peasant farmer to yield a land-tax, which he could only do by trading his own food surplus. At the same time they initiated “empire-seeking” policies involving the creation of large armies and the conquest of neighbouring states. These and other social conditions precipitated the development of a silver punchmarked coinage first in Kosala amd shortly afterwards in Magadha (coins 3 - 6).

Shortly before 530 B.C., in Gandhara (northwest India, see map), the Persian King Cyrus the Great made a brief raid, and in the next generation Gandhara was made a province of the Achaemenid (Persian) Empire, which then stretched from the Aegean

Sea to Indias Thus by 500 B.C, northwest India had been exposed to the idea of silver coinage through contact with the Achaemenid siglos am other Mediterranean currency. The existence of a separate local currency - bent-bars or wheel-mark coins - in Gandhara in the late 6th-5th centuries may have resulted from this contact (coin no. (٠

Whereas the Gandharan and single bold-mark Janapada coinages were of limited

duration, the Gangetic states of Kosala and Magadha set the pattern of silver coinage which was to last for 40O years. Actually Kosala’s coinage was short-lived, -as the whole state was annexed by the Magadhan emperor Ajatashatru:.(491 - 59 B.C.), and thereafter the punchmarked coinage is solely the product of the Magadhan — ~ a

Empire and its successor the Mauryan kmpire, and their semi-autonomous dependenciese Different ancient texts give conflicting lists of the kings of Magadha after Ajatashatru, and their dates are based on the death of the Buddha which is given variously as 5) B.C. and 83 B.C. WNumismatically the latter is more acceptable. The occurrence of overstruck coins (e.g. coin no. 9) suggests at least two violent changes in the Magadhan successions. The 5th and lth centuries saw the continued territorial and commercial expansion of Magadha with a corresponding increase in coinage output. This is verified by the Sanskrit work, “Arthashastra” (“Science of material gain”) prepared towards the end of the lth century B.C. It is surely the most amazing economic document of the ancient world, disclosing a highly-organised society employing an army of civil servants whose methods were ruthlessly practical. It confirms the existence of “guilds” or associations of craftsmen, who may have been responsible for stamping the numerous small reverse marks on Magadhan coins (coins 7 - 13). Similar test-marks occur on relatively modern Indian rupees.

The wealthy Nanda dynasty (c. 364 - 321 B.C.) introduced, in addition to the small r) marks, a new series of reverse marks comprising miniature replicas of obverse marks, occurring on an average of one in three coins of the period, (coin 12). Shortly before the downfall of the Nandas, Alexander the Great’s army invaded the Punjab where punchmarked coins circulated, but did not venture within the Magadhan Empire itself. This event, accorded so much importance in history, actually had no direct effect on the Indian coinage.

Of the succeeding Mauryan dynasty, either Chandragupta (c. 321 - 297 B.C.) or his

son Bindusara (ce 297 - 273 B.C.) initiated yet another change on the reverse of the coinagee The small “test” marks and “miniature” marks were abolished and in their place was stamped a single bold mark, often identical to one of the obverse marks. This change seems to have taken about a generation to accomplish throughout the Empire. Chandragupta and Bindusara continued to expand their empire by conquest until it stretched from Kabul to the mouth of the Ganges and from Nepal to Madras (see map). Bindusara’s successor, Ashoka (c. 273 - 232 3.C.) was one of the most enlightened rulers of all time. He erected a series of edicts on rocks and pillars throughout the empire, which sometimes bear symbols also found

on coins, thus helping their attribution to Ashoka. However, shortly after Ashoka’s death the empire began falling apart, and little is known of the half- dozen or so Mauryans who succeeded him. The existence of semi-independent cities within the empire at the height of Mauryan administration is verified by a few groups of “irregular” coins (coins 2h and 25); after Ashoka it seems that many more territories declared their independence. The issue of punchmarked coins dwindled, but exactly when it ceased altogether is uncertain, some scholars believing that the Sungas (successors of the jiauryans ce 184 B.C.) continued to

issue them. Owiing to the chemical process of decuprification, later ijauryan silver Coins occasionally appear to be made entirely of copper. These should not be ف‎ confused with the larger copper punchmarked coins of the independent states, which are not covered in this monograph. — Typical punchmarked coins

“Regular” punchmarked coins - the vast majority - bear five separately punched symbols on the obverse, though this may not be apparent due to overlapping or weak striking. These symbols were punched at one and the same time by the issuing authority, and the coins were issued probably from a number of mints throughout the empire. The obverse symbols are referred to in the order of frequency with which they occur. The first mark (sun) occurs on all regular coins; the second (six-armed symbol) occurs on all but its form varies in detail. The third mark occurs less frequently than the fourth; the fourth less frequently than the fifth. In total, nearly 300 obverse marks are known, in about 70 combinations. The meaning of the symbols is still unexplained and gives scope for much conjecture, but there is some evidence to 511868515 that the first two marks represent royal

authority, and one of the others denotes the mint. Other possible meanings are a date, a mint official, or some religious concept. The trend to associate many oe With Buddhism has passed.

Uncirculated coins should weigh between 51 and 5) grains, but there is a greater variance with Mauryan coins. There is no significant cifference between circular and rectangular coins, both types occuring throughout the “regular” series. It is suggested that the rectangular ones were cut from metal sheets and trimmed to the correct weight, and that periodically the trimmings were remelted into globules from which the circular coins were struck. The following examples are typical and particularly common. A Typical Magadhan coin (Nanda Dynasty)

Large thin flan, fine silver.

were | UM © l,sun 2,six-armed 3, dog on,bull 5,elephant symbol hill es, seven small marks.

Note: Up to twenty small marks may occur on well-circulated Magadhan coins, but since these marks are not “official” and often illegible, classification is difficult and probably of no chronological value. A Typical Mauryan coin (King Bindusara)

- Small thick flan, debased silver. ee eee. Se a l,sun 2,six-armed 3,crescent,peacock 5,steelyard symbol on hill on hill (balance) Reverse: rie Peacock on hill. The presence of a single bold mark, sometimes

accompanied by one or two other marks, characterises the later regular HMauryan coins. — ows

CATALOGUE OF 00

A selection of the more common, interesting or important types.

Terminology for the symbols varies. Some of the names in use for the commoner symbols are listed below,

erO + % ‏4 هم Chaitiya Shadrachakra Taurine Taxila Caduceus Standard Tree in Beetle or hill (for all types symbol railing or fish of 6-armed symbol)

1? EFARLY JANAPADA ISSUES

DESIGNATION

DATE WE IGHT SHAPE ORVERS® REVE NSE NOTES (grains)

Single mark 6th century varies round One large bold mark Blank or with anvil Fxtremely types BC or before} 25 - 180 (geometric design, marks or several rare animal, etc.) small marks Occasionally with added small marks,

Wheel-mark or - Sth cent. oblong Blank Rere bent-bar type BC. bar SO SOK of Gandhara Occasionally with small marks

Quarters and eighths of type 2 exist as round coins with only one mark

2 KINGDOM OF KOSALA 0-7

DYNASTY

No! DESIGNATION DATE RULER / Wt. | SHAPE OBVERSE REVERSE NOTES

3 | Saucer? early 6th oval, 2 pairs of bold marks numerous Extremely type century BC. reverse several small marks small marks rare concave

4 | Saucer? a little round, several Extremely t lat roy ا‎ ype ater reverse cap roe pv marks rare concave v با‎ marks; lst and 2nd constant, others vary

5 | 8118” later 6th cent.| Matanga/ h2 rectang- several small |Ve ry rare type BC Pasenadi? ular -“ا جو يع رك‎ | marks با‎ marks; lst constant,. others vary

3 EMPIRE OF MAGADHA

Coins 7 to 22 are regular 5-mark coins, of average weight 51 - 5 grains, shape rectangular, irregular, or round. Dates are based on the assumption that the Buddha died in )83 BC, but all dates are approximate and attributions to rulers are hypothetical. marks is given below.

A selection of alternative third marks which are also known to occur with the first two described in the type, enables all common types to be identified. A list of alternative fourth and fifth

OBVERSE MARKS

ALTERNATIVE

No} DATE | DYNASTY | RULER BY nig. 2S. a Ne i ae REVERSE NOTES

i} | }: 6 | 1ا-بلباك.ء‎?Bimbisara 20 29 (details not available) ee oe

‏e و

several “Golakhpur” type‏ Jco-491-h59?Ajata- a‏ 7 shatru SE He 5 04 A; W. a small marks | Very rare

@ MAGADHAN EMPIRE continued.

No. DATE DYNASTY RULER

OBVERSE

MARKS arpeRnNatIve REVERSE NOTES h THIRD MARKS ود‎

8 |» 3-و9ؤباء‎ successors ol ¥R¥ et numerous small Rare of Ajata- WF b? 6 fa < R marks shatru aw

9 |c 411-393 \Sigunaga |?Sigunaga ee Sad Gir 5 obverse marks of] Rare “Double

| = an older period;

Obverse” type small marks both sides 10 jc.393-mid successors | wy | >] numerous small Scarce th cent. of ° Nat 0 و بحيلك‎ marks Sisunaga TS ف له‎

11 214 4th c.|

Nanda | uncertain RE) دج‎ ١ several small Quite common See ds! 2 Se marks third mark: probablyalways | ب‎ miniature obverse marks

Ps hill-symbol @.-g+and several small on some reverses marks Quite common

”

“?Mahapadma SO oe 2 ¥ AN, a several small Quite common Viv, marks

Some other lth and 5th marks seen on Magadhan coins:

يي ممعم (3) لم ‏”5١ + © Cr rs — oh i

NAYRUAM ‏ERIPME با

RULER

OBVERSE MARKS No. DATE | (all Mauryan) ALTERNATIVE REVERSE NOTES!ا‎ 5. 3RD,WTH,5TH Mks.

ft,, Le A miniature co iy ic 321-297 |?Chandragupta SE ade م] | نيم مللم‎ {FAN wh ate 1 ا‎ & 1 small mark tt “ Ox ae m # be 3 بكر‎ miniature م‎ | common <> ata}

16 \c.321-273	Chandragupta SO thy..
or Bindusara	“AS	” 8
a Y ما«سإ‎	bold 08		. i \(18 jc.273=232\) Ashoka RAL bold bf very common. Note the rot اما ماك نيم‎ +22 abel ata a to coin 1h. \| 3rd mark remains, Jp ¥ يمي‎ constant from the time 505 ade 98 i ail 4 < of Ashoka. “ a. \| eR \| he 2; د‎ bold common

Py

el et “ “ Soe Bee ran sR ¥.4, i # | bola 8 common

21 |after 232?successors atz ats qf [bold fees} | 2common of Ashoka vox ¥ A) 7 oy A

Vv ° “ “ S-€ wDHE Ady mir ee ar vfv C4) | bold dy?common | م‎ |

23| (Mauryan period) soe Single symbol; several varieties occur | Blank “Mashaka” or fractional coin. Various weights A from about 1 to 5 grains

5 SEMI-AUTONOMOUS MAURYAN CITIES ~ 8

OBVLRSE MARKS

NO. DATE RULER, REVERSE NOTES

2h	2297-273	under
gy	ek

25 | later [|?under a | & 1 37 att | Ashoka x bold “92> rare. ‘?City of Taxila often degraded in form

6 + POST-MAURYAN PERIOD

| 26 | 2250 cent.|? Sunga dynasty BO On degraded 5 ب‎: graded «op rare. Base metal, small flans BG & or illegible “3 and indistinct symbols. | — aD «

PUNCHMARKED COINS: ILLUSTRATIONS

”~~ PERSIAN or

| M )م6‎ 8 5 va Pay” nw dey

/ “Ong م‎ > 7 و‎ \(=\)

5 مر‎ rok s if 3s eng en لو‎ © Localion of early single -mark ~ coins of various Cypes KOSALA at ils greatest extent, ¢. 490 6c. MAGADHA inthe 6thcent. BC. JAW” Himalayan and other mountain eacarpments Mauryan Empire under Ashoka, c 250 BC.

THE REALMS OF

PUNCHMARKED COINAGE SU” Zin 4 7 > - - ye a 1 we

JNSI JASB:: a 2 ظ ا‎ 1١ 1 UERAS Rs

Journal of the Numismatic Society of India Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Historical 1. 6.

A.S. Altekar: The origin and early history of coinage in India. JNSI 15 (1953) pe 1. A review of earlier opinions and of the literary evidence.

D.D. Kosambi: The culture and civilisation of ancient India. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965. An outstanding work giving due reference to coinage.

A.N. Lahiri: The punchmarked coins and the question of their prototypes. JNSI 30 (1968) p. 13. Useful perspective on the earliest coins.

Prasad: Observations on different types of silver punchmarked coins, their periods and locale. JASB Numismatic Supplement No. XLVII (1937).م‎ 51. One of the earliest attempts to relate the coins with history; still useful.
Ganapati Sastri (ed): Arthashastra. Mysore, 1958.
Thapar: A history of India, Vol. I. Penguin, 1966. Works containing catalogues Te Qe 10. abe
Allan: A catalogue of the Indian coins in the British Museum: Ancient India. 1936 (repr. 1967). The section on punchmarked coins is now out-of-date and many of the symbols are incorrectly drawn.

P.L. Gupta: The Amaravati hoard of silver punchmarked coins. Government of Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, 1963. The largest hoard ever published; contains the most advanced chronological classification available.

P.L. Gupta: The early coins from Kerala. Government of Kerala, 1966. Classifies two small hoards.

Prasad: Classification and significance of the symbols on the silver punchmarked coins of Ancient India. JASB Numismatic Supplement XLV (193)).م‎ 5. The 32 plates include a catalogue in roughly chronological order.

E.H.C. Walsh: Punchmarked coins from Taxila. Archaeological Survey of India, Memoir 59, 1939. Catalogues two important hoards but abounds in. errors and inconsistencies; corrected by Gupta in JNSI 11 (1950).م‎ 11h. — ie Special topics

V.S. Agrawala: A further note on the Raupya-Mashaka series. JNSI 16 (1954).م‎ 1). A survey of the fractional Mauryan issues.
P.L. Gupta: <A new hoard of silver punchmarked coins from Taxila. JNSI 13 (1952).م‎ 53. Includes some very late coins.

1). P.L. Gupta: Bibliography of hoards of punchmarked coins of Ancient india. Numismatic Society of India, Notes and Monographs No. 2, 1955.

D.D. Kosambi: On the study and metrology of the silver punchmarked coins. New Indian Antiquary IV (1941 - 2) pp 1 and 9. Introduces statistical approach..
D.D. Kosambi: The chronological order of punchmarked coins III: The Paila hoard. Journal of the Bombay Branch of the 103:31 Asiatic Society 27 (1952) pe 261. Applies the statistical method to Kosalan coinage.
Sir J. Marshall: Taxila (3 vols). Cambridge, 1951. Contains major sections on the coins excavated including two punchmarked hoards.
E.H.C. Walsh: A note on the six silver punchmarked coins described by Babu Sri Nath Sah. JNSI 5 (1943).م‎ 13. Describes very early Kosalan coinage.

NOTE

The attribution: and chronology of some of the coins described in this

paper is tentative and further evidence may be needed to establish them with certainty. September 1971 7, ٠. م6‎